Challenge Of Cultural Relativism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Challenge Of Cultural Relativism - Essay Example Consequently, the principles or moral relativism are inconsistent in providing the individual and society requirements in regards to respecting other communities’ ways of life. Rachels states that â€Å"There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one society’s code as better than another’s (618). There are no moral truths that hold for all people at all times†. In this statement consistency cannot be maintained in all situations. The principle depicts that the individual perception is greater that the perception of the society. For this reason, there is no standard moral codes that can satisfy the perception requirements of every person (Gad 77). However, the society of a person is the creator of the requirements a person should abide by regardless of their internal perception. The concept of cultural relativisms only applies at the scope of an entire society but not for individuals. For this reason, Rachel’s statement does not depict a consistent way from which a moral truth can be identified. Firstly, the statement may create a probability that the society may create what may be perceived as right or wrong. On the other hand, a person’s point of view may also depict what is right or wrong. In the statement that â€Å"It is arrogant for us to try to judge other cultures. We should always be tolerant of them† (Rachels 618), there is great inconsistency. This is based on that one society’s perception of the truth may differ from another, thus creating a rift from the two points of view. Justification of a society’s moral code must be accompanied by criticism on perceptions that may contradict the moral codes. Consequently, if a society is in disapproval of a particular behaviour, they have a duty to pass judgment on anyone practicing the behaviour. Wong is of the assumption that the differences in beliefs embraced by different societies make it necessary to judge activities based

Final Review Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Final Review - Assignment Example a. In his book, Momaday has brought up a unique platform and from this one can view the cultural history of the Kiowa people. Through this book, Momaday has been able to bring out his own sense of background. The book has been structured to bring out a sense of purpose for Momaday who is a Kiowa Indian in the sense that he was born of that origin. Though he was born into that culture, he received his education in the American way. The book is structured to bring out the ancestral heritage of the Kiowa Indians, and in his own way he has constructed this in his book through the dominant culture, his own memory of the events and also, his imagination so that the structure of the book can come out right. He has managed to bring out the origin of the Kiowa people, their development of their own culture and how they still exist up to date. He has managed to carry on the mantel of their tradition (Momaday, 45). b. The way to the rainy mountain is a book written by Momaday who tells of his a ncestor’s, the Kiowa Indians and their origin, their cultures and tradition and also how they still exist today through imagination and through writing about them (Momaday, 12). The genre of this book is Folklore, which basically means that it mainly consists of legends, oral history, jokes, proverbs, popular beliefs, stories and customs. The absolutely true diary of a part time Indian is a book about a young Indian who grew up on a reservation and decided to go to a white school where he starts being treated as an outcast. The book tells of his struggle to gain his status both in school and at the reservation. The genre of this book is young-adult fiction in that it is one targeted for adolescents and young adults (Sherman, 14). c. Wampum can be described as the sacred shell beads that were traditionally used by the Eastern Woodlands tribes. These were the indigenous people of North America. They were at times used as currency during the colonist’s period. They were s ignificant in terms of being used as a symbol for tradition like in marriages. Some of the uses include being used to mark exchanges such as in marriages, engagements and also agreements in terms of betrothal. Question 2 Historical events would likely to have been interpreted from a Native American point of view rather than an Anglo American point of view because in the real sense, Native Americans were the initially the inventors of most traditions and those traditions still exist and thus, their experience is much more exhibited. Native Americans and their history have become the interest of many people, both Indians and non-Indians alike. There is an interesting fact about discussing the history of Indians and thus it brings out an informative and appealing manner to their history (Mary, 22). a. When the congress unilaterally decided to stop making treaties with the Native Nations and forced assimilation, there were many effects and affects that followed. There was the assassinat ion of resistance leaders and also some of the leaders were separated from their people and imprisoned in certain remote facilities like Fort Marion. Geronimo was among those imprisoned (Geronimo, 45). b. The Native Americans would classify the

Analysis of Personnel selling

Analysis of Personnel selling Personnel selling: selling through person to person communications process. (Belch and Belch 2009:593). A personnel selling is different from other communication forms, presented in the message flow from sender to a receiver to directly face to face (Belch and Belch 2009:593). Thomas Wotruba, had a point of view toward personnel selling evolvement, he believes that personnel selling evolves as marketing environment evolves. (Belch and Belch 2009:595). Personal selling consists of personal selling evolutions, which are: Provider stage: selling activities are limited to accepting orders for the suppliers available offering and conveying it to the buyer. (Belch and Belch 2009:595). Retailers such as Carrefour, spinneys, Awlad Ghanem, will order from Nestle Elite tea, so that they can sell it to consumers. Persuader stage: Market members buy suppliers offering because selling encourages this attempt. (Belch and Belch 2009:595). Nestle will convince retailers to buy their products, by giving them offers such as buy 10 elite black tea boxes and take 1 free, and buy 20 elite black tea boxes and take 25% discount on one of the ten boxes. Prospector stage: Searching for buyers who needs offering, also resources and authority to purchase it. (Belch and Belch 2009:595). Nestle should search for customers who are willing to take their Elite tea offers and willing to purchase their products. Problem solver stage: Selling requires buyers participation, to discover their problems which can be turned into needs. (Belch and Belch 2009:595). Nestle should get feedback if there is a problem, so that they can fix it, and then try to convert it into positive purchase. Procreator stage: creating a special offer to match the needs of the buyer with all the aspects of the sellers marketing mix. (Belch and Belch 2009:595). Nestle must search the problems of the buyer and need and creates an offer which will be suitable with customers. The information that we are trying to send to customers is that elite tea is different from any other product in the market and that it delivers a royal experience and taste to who consumes it. Ways of carrying out this information to customers is: Advertisements Telephone selling Face to face selling Personal selling Product: Elite tea can be explained by the seller by saying the benefits of it and what experience will the customer feel after drinking a cup, mainly it will be an emotional motivator. And the amount of advertising and events that we will going to generate to increase the demand of the product that will raise comfort for the customer in the purchasing process. Price: The price is negotiable because it is set based on the rate of purchasing of the customer. That we give for the sales person (spokes person) a range that he can offer the customer more preofable prices. reselling price (sales out) selling price (sales in)    15 12.75-13.25 elite black tea 100 tb 5 2.75-3 elite black tea 25 tb 16 13.5-14 elite green tea 100 tb 4.75 3-3.25 elite green tea 25 tb 36 27-28 elite earl grey tea 100 tb 17 13-14 elite English early breakfast 100 tb 6.25 3.25-3.75 elite English early breakfast 25 tb 19.25 15.5-16 elite dust tea 250 G 11 7.5-8 elite dust tea 100 G Channels: As Nestle divides the market into two sectors traditional trade and modern trade as elite tea is a high quality product and targeting upper social classes, so sales force will be focusing on a specific on modern trade and more specifically in the (MT) will be supermarkets and hypermarkets. And in traditional trade they will focus on groceries in class A areas Modern channels, is selling our products through intermediary retailers whom use new ways of presenting the product such as Carrefour and spinneyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s, these types of distributors require special training on how to represent the product and how to convince consumers on buying it by cooperating with the promotion department. Traditional channels, is selling our products through intermediary retailers whom use old fixed ways of presenting the product these are small grocery stores located everywhere, they do not need special training. Advertising is very effective as it delivers the message to targeted customers in an entertaining way but sometimes the message could be unclear leading to a misunderstanding. Therefore personal selling can help by providing an individual in modern channel distributors whom can help and explain what the product offers to increase sales and customers perception. We can measure sales results by: Orders Sales volume in each distributor Sales calls Personal selling and PR: PR helps personal selling in a great way as it can create an image for the brand in the customerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s mind that will assist sales of the product, one way is the project carried out by the PR department which donates 50 piaster from each pack of tea sold to help under developed communities. Our sales depend on the skills of our force and how they can influence the consumers in buying our TEA. Personal selling Responsibilities: Locating prospective customers: Nestle should try searching for new customers, Nestle sales people must target and hold on to the customers who will be beneficial. Determining customers needs and wants: sales people in nestle collect information on the customers and take decision on how to approach them, the sales person in nestle should identify the needs and wants of the customers, and should be sure that customers are able to purchase the product. Recommending a way to satisfy the customers needs and wants: Sales person in Nestle should get feedback on customers, to see if they have any problems with the product, and what solutions could they offer to satisfy them. Demonstrating the capabilities of the firm and its products: Sales person in this stage demonstrates the beneficial points of Elite tea and why should customers choose Nestle. Closing the sale: This is the most difficult step, because not all sales people are able to convince the customers to buy the product. So in Nestle we try to train our sales force to successfully close the sales. Following up and servicing the account: Our responsibility doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t end once we sell the product, Nestle tries to keeps its customers satisfied by selling extra products.

Controversies Over Technology in Early Childhood Classrooms Essay

Controversies Over Technology in Early Childhood Classrooms The role of technology in early childhood education is a controversial topic to both teachers and parents. The main concerns of both teachers and parents is the potential benefits for young children’s learning and development.. Supporters and non-supporters agree on the importance of young children’s social, emotional, cognitive and physical development. Supporters feel children should have the opportunity to use the computer as another tool to aide in and encourage their development. Non-supporters agree the computer may be a useful tool for young children but feel many teachers may not be using the computers in the best way to promote a healthy development in the child. They also contend that introducing the computer takes away from important learning experiences such as play and art (NWREL, 2001). School programs are now working on ways to better integrate computers into the classrooms in order to offer the young children the opportunities to develop the necessary skills to grow as students (Gimbert, 2004). The purpose of this research paper is to examine the controversies that surround technology use in early childhood classrooms. Introducing Technology into the Classroom Properly introducing technology into early childhood classrooms is the first and crucial step in producing a new and useful tool for students to use to enhance their learning. Many researchers do not recommend introducing computers to children young than three because they are not developmentally ready ((Haugland, 2000). It is useful to start off introducing a computer to young children in a group setting because it is general information all children need to know. The teacher may begi... ...about the different ways in which young children experience computers in the classroom setting. It included a study done of kindergarteners from about 22,000 different public and private schools and examined they availability of computers to these children. Romeo, G. (2003). Touching the screen: issues related to the use of touch screen technology in early childhood education. British journal of educational technology, 3, 329-339. In this Journal there was a study performed on early childhood students and their reaction to touch screen computers. The results were more negative rather than positive proving that it was more productive to use the mouse and keyboard for young children. Shade, D. (1999). Integrating technology into the early childhood classroom: the case of literacy learning. Information technology in Childhood Education Annual. 1999, 221-254.

Persuasion, Manipulation, and Seduction as Related to Human Communication Essay

Johnson 2 Since the beginning of the human race, human have use some sort of influence to get other to do what they want them to do. The earliest example of this can be seen in the Garden of Eden, where Adam was influenced to eat from the forbidden fruit. For the purpose of this paper we will attempt to compare the effect of persuasion, manipulation, and seduction as it relates to human communication. Much of human communication involves attempts to influence. It is done verbally and non-verbally, consciously and unconsciously, honestly and deceitfully. Some people may be swayed with reason and logic or by emotions and character. There is no doubt that the power to persuade is a coveted tool for anyone regardless of how they wish to use it. However, beyond simple persuasion are other acts of influence that are just as powerful. The terms persuasion, manipulation, and seduction are sometimes used interchangeable when describing influential behavior (Newell, 2010). Persuasion is the act of influencing others, who are conscious of the intent, through communication. That is they are conscious that attempted influencing is taking place. Also it is under the assumed umbrella of free will meaning that there is no form of duress or outside pressure involved that would force influence. While persuasion is an act that takes place between at least two conscious parties, manipulation happens when the side being influenced is not aware of it. That is a human is programmed over time to execute everyday decisions mindlessly based on the expected behavior of themselves and others. Manipulation takes place when a conscious person triggers an automatic response from an unconscious thinker. The art of seduction, as it is often described, is a kin to persuasion as its intent to influence is known. What sets it apart, Johnson 3 however, is the influencer (seducer) is setup to be the object of desire that will complete the missing parts of audience so that they may be complete (Codoban, 2006). Seduction is also a form of manipulation as it draws upon social programming and natural responses of people. As the tern is used mostly in the relationships of a man and a woman (or sexual preference), there are many programmed and natural responses that take place when a seducer successfully makes themselves the object of another’s desire (Newell, 2006). Sometimes the lines may be blurred when influencing takes place. There are definite moral stigmas attached to each of these influencing techniques. While persuasion has a broad connotation of simple attempts of influence to any audiences, manipulation and seduction have specific undertones of being immoral (Newell, 2006). Modern day persuasive devices are all around us and not all are as obvious as we they are, they can be very subtle. There are many ways in which people work to persuade. In advertising, commercials, magazines, movies, and political campaigns often times we see more empty promises, which classifies much of what we see in those arenas as seduction. On the other hand some of what we see in politics and marketing are closer to manipulation than seduction (Tuenge, 2010). Examples of manipulative devices given by Codoban (2006) were as follow, reciprocity, the consistency mechanism and social proof principle (p. 153-154).

The Shawshank Redemption

Adrian Sanchez Intro to Film 1 Sharri Hefner 4/20/13 Shawshank Redemption The Shawshank Redemption is a drama film released in 1994 written and directed by Frank Darabont. The overall theme of The Shawshank Redemption is the burden of isolation and imprisonment. Each of the inmates inside Shawshank Prison is locked up metaphorically as well as literally. Most prisoners in Shawshank redemption are there for life sentences. All that time behind the walls have changed the way the prisoners think and how they live.The young prisoners always say they are innocent when they are truly guilty. But Red, (played by Morgan Freeman) admits that he is guilty after spending 40 years in jail. The time he had to think about what he did is what led him to confess the truth. This is just one example of what all those years of isolation does to a person. The formal elements, camera, and the narrative is what I will use to prove the theme. The overall look and feel of the film is dark until the ending. The mise-en-scene of shawshank prison is unjust and shady.The design and characters help shape the mise-en-scene as an unjust and shady prison system. The design of shawshank looks like an old school dark sort of tower as you can see when andy first arrives to the prison. The costume is spot on in this movie. The officers uniforms look very intimidating as the prisoners uniforms look very dirty and plain. The warden is also dressed nice throughout the movie always in a suit. They use this to differentiate the high class and the lower class. The higher class is always controlling the lower class and accessing their dominance.They instill fear in their prisoners by abusing them and beating them which is very unfair. Years of being in that sort of environment can cause some prisoners to go crazy. Imagine going through that and witnessing that type of abuse every day of your life? Its going to have a huge effect on your brain mentally. This type of abuse makes a prisoner feel trapped an d even more isolated. Also the camera helps dictate the feeling of isolation and imprisonment. The camera is key to the theme. The camera shots and angles help make the viewer see how it feels to be isolated and trapped.One of my favorite shots of the movie is when andy is walking inside shawshank prison and they use a cut transition into a subjective shot where andy is looking up and seeing the tall building as hes walking inside the prison. That scene lets me know that he is already feeling trapped and he had just got there. They also use lighting to help inforce isolation and imprisonment. When Red is in his jail cell and as soon as the lights go out the lighting immediately changes and they do a close up shot to reds face and his emotion seems frightened and scared.Also when Andy gets cornered by three guys for the first time the lighting helps build shadow to make andy feel trapped. The narrative also helps shape the theme. The narrative as a whole helps dictate the theme. The characters throughout the movie feel trapped. There are different levels of isolation within the prison from the large, enclosed recreation yard to the smaller work crews down to the cellblock, cells, and, finally, solitary confinement.The prison then becomes a multilayered world that they have to live and deal with for the rest of their lifes. The sad thing is they cannot do nothing about it. When Bogs gets locked up in solitary confinement for a week the officers opened the door and said â€Å"Times up bogs† then he put on a fake grin and said â€Å"its your world boss†. This is the warden and the officers world and the prisoners are trapped in it with nothing they can do about it. They are in for so long that they get used to the prison system and this cruel world.But they forget about the life outside the bars. When brooks finds out he will be on parol he loses it. He almost kills his friend just to stay in jail. He wants to stay in jail because outside of the wall s he is nothing but inside the prison he is actually somebody. The montage of brooks when he gets out of jail is extremely sad. It depicts the negative effect on being imprisoned for a long time. When he gets out he is lost in the world. He feels even more alone then he ever was in shawshank.Being in prison for that long has negative effects on the brain. When you get used to one way of living you feel like that’s the only way to live but when you step out in the real world you are just confused and don’t know how to react to the environment. Sadly he committed suicide at the end of the montage. Also red told andy in the last scene that they were in prison together â€Å"ive been in here for most of my life. Im an institutionalized man now [†¦] In here im the guy that can get things for you. Outside all you need is the yellow pages. He is saying that he is so used to the prison that he would never survive in the real world. This futher proves my theme that isolat ion and imprisonment is a burden. You feel trapped both physically and mentally when you’re in jail for that long. Andy and red were the only ones to break through the physical and mental hurdle that many prisoners couldn’t. Others would have just given up. But andy and red had other intentions. They wanted freedom so bad they would do anything to get it. And so they did. Now that’s The Shawshank Redemption.

The Hobbit and Bilbo Essay

The Hobbit and Bilbo Essay The Hobbit and Bilbo Essay Book Report: The Hobbit The Hobbit is a book written by J.R.R. Tolkien, there were many different publishers and dates of publication, and they are: * George Allen and Unwin 1937- Great Britain. * Second Edition 1951- Great Britain. * Third Edition 1966- Great Britain. * Fourth Edition 1978- Great Britain. * Fifth Edition – Harper Collins Publishers (London, England) – (Edition that I am reading). Plot: Bilbo, a simple hobbit is smoking his pipe when all of a sudden he is visited by an old acquaintance, Gandalf the Wizard. Gandalf asks Bilbo to go on a dangerous but exiting adventure with him. As hobbits don’t really go on adventures Bilbo was confused and asked Gandalf to come back the next day. The next day came and Bilbo heard a knock at his door, he thought it was Gandalf but 13 dwarves came one by one knocking at his door before Gandalf finally came to his doorstep. The dwarves started eating and speaking of their upcoming journey to the Lonely Mountains. Long ago, there was a dragon named Smaug, he was an evil, blood drenching, and fire breathing scum of a dragon. One day Smaug chased away the dwarf’s forefathers from the Lonely Mountains, their King at that time was Thorin Oakenshields father. Thorin wanted to regain his father’s throne and all the wealthy possessions that lie in the mountain that Smaug had made a bed for. The dwarves and Gandalf want Bilbo to come along with them and to be their burglar, as Hobbits are known to be sneaky and very quiet when they have to. After some agreements on their upcoming adventure and a few captivating songs the dwarves leave for the night so they can get an early start. The next morning, Bilbo is woken up and hurried by Gandalf to join up with his fellow companions. They then begin their long and dangerous journey. Not long before they left Bilbo all of a sudden realised that he has never gone further from his home town of Hobbiton ever before. A few days later Gandalf disappea rs and does not come back for a while, this happens quite a few times throughout the book. Bilbo encountered a lot of danger, on one occasion he was faced with stealing from some trolls but was caught. This led to the rest of the group being captured. Gandalf returned in time to rescue them and defeated the trolls. The group went along and travelled to a magical, peaceful and beautiful place called Rivendell. They stayed there for a while to freshen up the supplies. After meeting Elrond who is the head of Rivendell and retrieving a map to help them on their journey, they leave and enter the mountains. The group’s path is very hard and dangerous. One day when taking shelter in a cave, they are grabbed by Goblins, except for Gandalf who disappeared. In the Great Hall of the Goblins, Gandalf reappears and kills the chief Goblin and rescues the dwarves. The group flees but Bilbo drops and is knocked out into the darkness. When he woke up, Bilbo came across a magical ring and while trying to find a way out of this dark and dreadful cave, he comes across a creature named Gollum. After talking about riddles and if Gollum was going to eat Bilbo, Bilbo escapes by putting on the ring, as the ring makes the wearer invisible, and this is also how he got past all the goblins without being noticed. After re-joining the group they encounter wolves and are forced to climb trees so they aren’t attacked. Fighting them wasn’t a choice as many goblins came afterwards. Giant eagles saw what was going on came and rescued the group. The eagles took the group to a dark forest named Mirkwood. There they stay with a man named Beorn who helps them by providing them with supplies. When they enter the forest they leave the ponies behind and Gandalf does not go along either. The forest is terrible. One day one dwarf falls into a stream that made him fall asleep which made the rest of the dwarves carry him through the forest. When nearing the end of their food and supplies they are attacked by giant

Cyberstalking and Internet Harassment - Then and Now

Cyberstalking and Internet Harassment - Then and Now The first federal prosecution of cyber harassment in the United State was in June 2004 when 38-year-old James Robert Murphy from Columbia, South Carolina, pleaded guilty to two counts of Use of a Telecommunications Device (the internet) with Intent to Annoy, Abuse, Threaten or Harass. According to investigators, Murphy was sending anonymous and uninvited emails to Seattle resident Joelle Ligon and to her co-workers as early as 1998. Murphy and Ligon  had dated on and off from 1984-1990. As time went on, the harassment increased and along with dozens of obscene emails each day, Murphy also began sending sexually  explicit faxes to Ligon and her co-workers. Cant Get Away When Ligon moved to different states and changed jobs, Murphy was able to track her through malware he had placed on her computers and continue his attack. For over four years Ligon tried to ignore the messages by deleting them, but Murphy began making it appear that Ligon was the one sending the sexually explicit materials to her fellow workers. Murphy also had special email programs in order to hide his identity and he created the Anti Joelle Fan Club (AJFC) and repeatedly sent threatening emails from this  alleged group. Ligon decided to start collecting the materials as evidence and went to the police who enlisted the help of the Northwest Cyber Crime Task Force, composed of the FBI, United States Secret Service, Internal Revenue Service, Seattle Police Department, and Washington State Patrol. The NWCCTF investigates Cyber-related violations including criminal computer intrusions, intellectual property theft, child pornography and internet fraud. She also managed to identify Murphy as the person harassing her and she obtained a court order barring contact. When Murphy emailed her, denying that he was harassing  her, he violated the court order. Murphy was indicted in April 2004 on 26 counts of sending harassing emails and other violations between May 2002 and April 2003. At first, Murphy pleaded innocent to all charges, but two months later and after a plea agreement was reached, he pleaded guilty to two of the violations. No Remorse From Murphy In court, Murphy told the Judge what he did was stupid, hurtful and just plain wrong. I was going through a bad patch in my life. I want to take my lumps and get on with life. In sentencing Murphy Judge Zilly noted that he was surprised that Murphy made no effort to indicate your remorse to the victim, to indicate you were sorry. The Judge noted that he had received a letter from Joelle Ligon unlike any he had ever received from a crime victim. In it Ligon asked the Judge to impose an effective and compassionate sentence. Judge Zilly decided to impose 500 hours of community service instead of the 160 hours requested by the government. Zilly also sentenced Murphy to five years of probation and more than $12,000 which was to paid to the City of Seattle to compensate the City for 160 hours of work time lost by employees dealing with the harassment. The Crime of Cyberstalking Continues to Grow It used to be that news reports such as Murphys case were an oddity, but with the increase of people managing several aspects of their lives online, both at work and in their personal lives, it has created a vulnerability that attracts criminals including cyberstalkers, webcam blackmailers and identity thieves. According to a poll released by Rad Campaign, Lincoln Park Strategies and Craig Newmark of craigconnects, a quarter of the American population has been bullied, harassed or threatened online and that number almost doubles for those under the age of 35. A third of the victims of online harassment are afraid that the situation may spill over into their real lives resulting in embarrassment and humiliation, loss of jobs, and many are scared for their lives. Reporting Online Harassment and Cyberstalking Many victims of cyberstalking do like Joelle Ligon did when Murphy first harass her, she ignored it, but as the threats grew she sought help. Today, it appears that the response by social networks and law enforcement is improving, with 61 percent of the reported cases resulting in the social networks shutting down the accounts of the offenders and 44 percent of reported cases to law enforcement resulted in an effort to track down the offender. If You Are Threatened Threats should never be ignored - report it. Keeping a record of the date and time of the threat, a screen shot, and hard copies is evidence. It not only can help authorities, social networks, ISPs and website host figure out the identity of the offender, but it also helps prove the level of the harassment which is the deciding factor on if, or if not, a complaint gets investigated.

3 Tricks to Figure out the Authors Tone

3 Tricks to Figure out the Author's Tone Authors tone is simply an authors expressed attitude toward a particular written subject. It may not be his or her actual attitude as authors can certainly express an attitude other than their own. Its very different from the  authors purpose! The tone of the article, essay, story, poem, novel, screenplay, or any other written work can be described in many ways. The authors tone can be witty, dreary, warm, playful, outraged, neutral, polished, wistful, reserved, and on and on. Basically, if theres an attitude out there, an author can write with it. To better understand tone, you should practice. So, now that you know what it is, how can you determine the authors tone when you get to a reading comprehension test? Here are a few tricks to help you nail it every time. Read the Introductory Info On most major reading comprehension tests, the test makers will give you a little snippet of information along with the authors name prior to the text itself. Take these two examples from the ACT Reading test: Passage 1: This passage is adapted from the chapter â€Å"Personality Disorders† in  Introduction to Psychology, edited by Rita L. Atkinson and Richard C. Atkinson ( ©1981 by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.). Passage 2: This passage is adapted from the novel The Men of Brewster Place  by Gloria Naylor ( ©1998 by Gloria Naylor). Without reading any portion of the text itself, you can already determine that the first text will have a more serious tone. The author writes in a scientific journal, so the tone will have to be more reserved. The second text could be anything at all, so when youre reading, youll need to use another trick to determine the authors tone. Watch Word Choice Word choice plays a major part in the tone of a piece. If you look at the examples given in the What is Authors Tone article, youll see how very different an identical situation can be by just the words an author chooses to use. Look at the following words and see how they reflect a different feeling, even though the words are similar in meaning. Sit in the sunshine and smile. Bask in the brilliant rays. Discover your giggle.Sit in the hot sun and smirk. Recline in the glaring rays. Hunt for that snicker.  Sit in the warm sun and grin. Relax in the warm rays. Look for a chuckle. Even though all three sentences are written almost identically, the tones are very different. One is more relaxing- you can picture a lazy afternoon by the pool. The other is more joyful- maybe playing in the park on a sunny day. The other is definitely more sarcastic and negative, even though its written about sitting in the sun. Go With Your Gut Often, a tone is tough to describe, but you know what it is. You get a particular feeling from the text- an urgency or a certain amount of sadness. You feel angry after reading it and can sense the author is angry, too. Or you find yourself chuckling throughout the text even though nothing comes right out and screams funny! So, on these kinds of texts, and the corresponding authors tone questions, trust your gut. And on the authors tone questions, hide the answers and make yourself come up with a guess before looking. Take this question for example: The author of the article would most likely describe ballet as... Before you get to the answer choices, try to finish the sentence. Put an adjective in there based on what youve read. Amusing? Essential? Cut-throat? Joyous? Then, when youve answered the question with a gut reaction, read the answer choices to see if your choice, or something similar, is there. More often than not, your brain knows the answer even if you doubt it!

Whether or not we should use animals in medical research Essay

Whether or not we should use animals in medical research - Essay Example Every side of the argument has posed questions concerning man’s place with respect to these animals and the natural world. Most people arguing against the use of animals for medical research have based their arguments on the relationship between humans and nature philosophies as put forward by Peter Singer that humans do not exist totally above nature, with the focus basically on animals. Singer refers to most attitudes that humans possess towards animals as speciesism that is a concept, which has existed throughout history (Owen 33). Before him, Aristotle was of the view that nature consists of a hierarchy where animals with less ability to reason existed for those who had less ability to reason. Therefore, plants are in existence for the sake of animals, with animals existing for the sake of humans. He used this concept to further his belief in slavery with humans with less reasoning ability existing to serve those with higher ability (Owen 34). While this view has been reje cted by society, it is applied towards animals and other non-humans. Speciesism has been practiced by Christians and Jews based on the superiority they extract from the book of Genesis and God’s word (Owen 36). ... The lobby for animal liberation does not contend that every animal has equal worth, however. It contends that where the animal and man possess similar interests, these interests need to be equated to each other, for instance, the avoidance of physical pain (Owen 37). There should be no automatic discount because one is human and the other evidently is not. Singer’s rejection of speciesism is clearly illustrated by his clarification; he does not mean to imply that all living beings have equal worth via his consideration of how man makes choices within his own species. If man had to make a choice between saving a normal human being’s life and that of an intellectually deficient human, he would most probably plump for the normal one. However, were the choice between the prevention of suffering in a normal human and in the intellectually deprived, making the assumption that both had painful injuries and that there were only pain-killers for one, then the choice becomes murk ier. The choice probably would be on the basis of the one who had more suffering (Owen 38). Because most experiments concerning animals are painful to the animal, the movement for animal rights commits itself to the complete abolition of animal use in medical research. Those that support the utilization of animals for medical research argue that while animals do suffer in a morally significant way, this is not sufficient ground, by itself, to afford them equal status morally with humans (Owen 50). Therefore, if the animals do not have the same moral status in comparison to humans, humans are not morally obligated to restrain themselves from using them for medical research.

The development of recommendations for best practices in Value-Chain Essay

The development of recommendations for best practices in Value-Chain Integration for UK Financial Services organisations adopting Business Process Outsourcing - Essay Example ater pressures on margins which, in turn, drive the need for improved operational efficiencies; second, the need to refocus on core competencies in order to improve competitiveness and third, growing numbers of easily available and capable specialist providers. Added to this is the fact that technological advances now make it easier for business to be conducted across many locations and partnerships. It should be noted that businesses are constantly re-evaluating their strategic operations and the definition of core and non-core is consequently in a state of flux. What is viewed as core today will not necessarily be viewed as core tomorrow. Certain core activities can be outsourced if there is considerable fluctuation in demand that does not justify full time increase in head count. The decisions on outsourcing are generally strategic. Deming (1982, cited by Odindo et al, 2004) advised companies to reduce the number of suppliers. Fewer suppliers with long term commitments can improve a company’s operation. â€Å"Not having to deal with many companies helps to minimise the complexities and costs that may result from inconsistencies and variety when more than one service provider is used† (Odindo et al, 2004). Sometimes companies outsource to their competitors when the only competency to serve them is found in competitors. Odindo et al (2004) have also pointed out that outsourcing can be used to harness innovation and talent beyond the confines of a company. It is not easy or generally possible for an organisation to have all the talent required for the company to innovate. Using outsourcing providers gives a company access to the provider’s innovative capabilities. The very nature of the financial services business means that companies are suitable candidates for outsourcing and many have become highly sophisticated users of these services. Financial services companies have fewer ties to a particular geographic location than other businesses and only a small

Sampling and Data Collection Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Sampling and Data Collection - Assignment Example A research problem where probability sampling is appropriate is in a study of effects of brand modification on a product’s popularity. The research problem targets a diversified population by such factors as age, income, levels of education, and area of residence. Significance of sub-populations, within the factors, may further vary and a representative sample that also factors relative significance of the sub-populations requires a stratified random sampling approach. The population is in the case divided into the subgroups and each group allocated a probability of sampling a participant. Random sampling is a method of obtaining a sample, based on unrestricted probability sampling approach, while random selection is an approach to allocating sampled research participants to different groups in a study (Black, 1999; Christensen, Johnson, and Turner, 2011). Random assignment is important in experimental research situations in which participants are to be assigned to treatment and control

Marketing Communications Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Marketing Communications Plan - Essay Example Sony Corporation is the electronics business unit that is responsible for the production and marketing of its video games consoles including the Sony PlayStation. The history of the PlayStation began in 1988 when Sony and Nintendo worked together on a product called the Super Disc. However, Sony and Nintendo parted company and the Super Disc was never launched by Nintendo. In 1991, Sony modified the Super Disk as part of its development of the first Sony PlayStation. Sony launched the long awaited PlayStation 3 in the USA in 2006 just two days before the launch of the Wii from Nintendo. These two new consoles proved to be immensely popular and most retail shops sold out of both within days. Soon afterwards both of the consoles appeared for resale in large numbers on the auction website eBay. The asking prices for some of these resale consoles were up to five times the original retail price. Microsoft's Xbox 360 console had a one-year lead in the market and enjoyed buoyant sales as a result. Nintendo's Wii positioned itself away from its main two competitors through the deployment of its ground-breaking motion-sensing controller (Cheng J, Mark Freeman-Aloiau M, Xin Guo, Pullen A. 2007) In 2In 2009, the PlayStation 3, helped by a $100 price cut, has outsold Nintendo's Wii console for the first time. Sales of the PlayStation 3 more than doubled to 491,800, while those of the Wii fell 33% to 462,800 (Satariano, A. 2009). The PlayStation 3 is expected to give a further boost to Sony's earnings in time for Christmas this year when the latest version of the blockbuster role-playing game for the PlayStation, 'Final Fantasy', is launched in December (iStockAnalyst, 2009). 2.0 Marketing Strategy 2.1 Positioning Strategy Sony uses the newest and greatest technology to appeal to their customers. The people who are most interested in staying up-to-date with the newest technology are usually men of the ages 15-30. To reach that market, they make games that are attractive to men of those ages; these games tend to be the shooters and high action games such as Kill Zone and God of War. However, they do make games for younger children; these games have a more adventure based game play such as Jak and Daxter and Crash Bandicoot. Beyond gaming, Sony also hopes to reach movie buffs with their high-definition movie playback thanks to Blu-ray technology. Blu-ray offers the latest advancement in movie entertainment experience. The detail of these movies is so good that you can literally see individual pores on people's faces. As you might expect, this means detail on everything is very high and movie buffs love this. 2.2 Product Strategy The PS3 offers the most advanced visuals and audio of any other game console and most computers. Hardcore gamers want their games to be more visually pleasing, and that is exactly what Sony has given them. They have changed very little about control setup except they have added some motion sensitivity (after they saw Nintendo unveil this feature in the Wii); this means that people who have played PS1 and/or PS2 won't have to learn how to hold and use the controller all over again. Also, there are a lot of classic games available for download via the Playstation Network (for a

Nonprofit Organization YMC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Nonprofit Organization YMC - Essay Example It approaches the heart of many communities all over the world ("About the YMCA", 2006). The local YMCAs in the different countries identify with each other in terms of a common direction and an overall strategy for the organization. However, the different YMCAs vary in terms of the programs and services implemented. The programs have to depend on the needs of the local communities that an organization caters to (Zald and Denton). One remarkable aspect in YMCA is that it encourages membership. Even if YMCA stands for Young Men's Christian Association, it does not mean that the doors are closed to those who are not young, Christian men ("About the YMCA", 2006). Most local YMCAs would accept non-Christian members and give them opportunities to participate and lead (Alexander). This was policy from the time when the organization started 150 years ago. It was even regarded as unconventional because back then, the demarcation among different classes and churches is very strong, particularly in England. This unusual trait made YMCA focus on the strength of openness they know that the effort to gather different people together is very important for the society. YMCA also provided assistance for those who cannot afford to pay through their financial policies. 'Y' then became something that stands for everybody, with no regard on the race, age, faith or income of the people who come to the organization ("About the YMC A", 2006). YMCA associations are operated by the volunteers and through them the various services are implemented. In North America, most people think of YMCA as a sports facility for the community because of its resources. However, the range of services YMCA provides is very broad. It includes child care, physical fitness, camping and overnights, conference halls and activity centers, employment preparation programs and educational activities. These are all utilized to instill and encourage positive values. ("YMCA", 2006). 2004 U.S. Statistics YMCAs 2,594 Members 20.1 million Facility members 11 million Program members 9 million Under age 18 members 9.7 million Over age 18 members 10.3 million Male members 10.1 million Female members 9.9 million Volunteers are also crucial in fulfilling the mission of YMCA. Through the volunteers, every YMCA is able to meet the needs of the community it serves. Volunteers 613,430 Program 559,044 Board 54,386 Source: www.ymca.net History of YMCA The history of YMCA can be traced in England. It started from an organization founded by a certain Sir George Williams in 1844 in London. He was 23 years old then, an aristocrat who is known for dedicating his efforts in promoting the health and welfare of boys. He was also helped by his friends who are mostly businessmen. Their endeavor was to give an active response to the impending dangers brought about by the social conditions and realities faced in big cities in Great Britain at the time. This period was the end of the Industrial Revolution. YMCA aimed to put an end to the lazy and mischievous behavior of the young men. They were encouraged to again take Bible studies and enroll in different classes. YMCA was able to recruit more or less 2,700 members in their twenty-four associations. Great Britain witnessed this just within seven years (Vodrey, n.d.). The success of the group in Great Britain led them to spread the effort into other

Outsourcing Functions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Outsourcing Functions - Essay Example Army takes active support of the capabilities of special operations forces, for the functioning of landlines of communication, and other civil programs. A whole range of missions is assigned by the National Command Authorities for the army to play its crucial role with the support from the core competencies. Thus, the core competencies relate to structuring the country’s security environment, quick action against natural or human created crisis, mobilizing the army to be a part of the action on war front, crossing the enemy physical borders by forcing entry, long term hold of foreign lands to resolve the conflicts, closing with and defeating of enemy forces through precision fires and maneuvers by using information technology to its advantage. These are the critical skills that an army must develop and nurture so that it is looked upon with great respect by the powers that matter . Other core capabilities of army include commanding and control of Joint and Multinational Forces that require inter-organization collaboration on united handling of capabilities to foster competency. Army manages and safeguards people, land and natural resources as well. It organizes sustained operations of essentials to the army that includes supply, engineer, finance, medical, and personnel units. Army supports the civil authorities in domestic and global urgencies as well. These are such functions, which the army should outsource to outside companies that have greater expertise to competently perform the related tasks. It will leave enough room for the army to pay attention to more demanding tasks for which it is formed . The Corps of Engineers is one such organization, which is a part of the army. It is in the same way facing hardships in managing

Nonprofit Organization YMC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Nonprofit Organization YMC - Essay Example It approaches the heart of many communities all over the world ("About the YMCA", 2006). The local YMCAs in the different countries identify with each other in terms of a common direction and an overall strategy for the organization. However, the different YMCAs vary in terms of the programs and services implemented. The programs have to depend on the needs of the local communities that an organization caters to (Zald and Denton). One remarkable aspect in YMCA is that it encourages membership. Even if YMCA stands for Young Men's Christian Association, it does not mean that the doors are closed to those who are not young, Christian men ("About the YMCA", 2006). Most local YMCAs would accept non-Christian members and give them opportunities to participate and lead (Alexander). This was policy from the time when the organization started 150 years ago. It was even regarded as unconventional because back then, the demarcation among different classes and churches is very strong, particularly in England. This unusual trait made YMCA focus on the strength of openness they know that the effort to gather different people together is very important for the society. YMCA also provided assistance for those who cannot afford to pay through their financial policies. 'Y' then became something that stands for everybody, with no regard on the race, age, faith or income of the people who come to the organization ("About the YMC A", 2006). YMCA associations are operated by the volunteers and through them the various services are implemented. In North America, most people think of YMCA as a sports facility for the community because of its resources. However, the range of services YMCA provides is very broad. It includes child care, physical fitness, camping and overnights, conference halls and activity centers, employment preparation programs and educational activities. These are all utilized to instill and encourage positive values. ("YMCA", 2006). 2004 U.S. Statistics YMCAs 2,594 Members 20.1 million Facility members 11 million Program members 9 million Under age 18 members 9.7 million Over age 18 members 10.3 million Male members 10.1 million Female members 9.9 million Volunteers are also crucial in fulfilling the mission of YMCA. Through the volunteers, every YMCA is able to meet the needs of the community it serves. Volunteers 613,430 Program 559,044 Board 54,386 Source: www.ymca.net History of YMCA The history of YMCA can be traced in England. It started from an organization founded by a certain Sir George Williams in 1844 in London. He was 23 years old then, an aristocrat who is known for dedicating his efforts in promoting the health and welfare of boys. He was also helped by his friends who are mostly businessmen. Their endeavor was to give an active response to the impending dangers brought about by the social conditions and realities faced in big cities in Great Britain at the time. This period was the end of the Industrial Revolution. YMCA aimed to put an end to the lazy and mischievous behavior of the young men. They were encouraged to again take Bible studies and enroll in different classes. YMCA was able to recruit more or less 2,700 members in their twenty-four associations. Great Britain witnessed this just within seven years (Vodrey, n.d.). The success of the group in Great Britain led them to spread the effort into other

Music and no music condition Essay Example for Free

Music and no music condition Essay The use of music seems to be a good way of operationalising the IV as many people do learn to the sound of music so therefore the difference between the music and no music condition should be marked. Also, getting the participants to write down the words is a good way of measuring the DV as it means it is easy to collect and analyse the data.  The study itself was quite simple and it seemed to measure what effects music has on learning. The independent variable was manipulated in such a way that it was hard for there to be anyway the results could have been affected significantly. Also because the measurement method was very simple there isnt a chance that the results could be interpreted in the wrong way. As the study was a laboratory experiment it doesnt have as high validity as a field experiment. Although the participants were not in a strange environment, the fact that they knew they were being studied may lower the ecological validity of the study.  Leading on from the fact that the study might have bad ecological validity, there is also the problem of the study having bad participant reactivity. Seeing as they know they are being studied and they know they have to learn the list of words given to them, they may try much harder than they normally would in their everyday life. There is the factor of social desirability and how some participants may deliberately try to recall fewer words. Improving Validity  Although it would be very difficult and expensive it could be possible to take the study outside the laboratory to increase the ecological validity of the study. You could monitor the participants while they are learning for something at home and while they are playing their own music in their rooms. They could then be tested unknowingly at school by one of their reachers.  However, even if these changes were made, the results would probably still stay the same. It has been proved before by numerous studies done by different scientists that music does help when trying to learn. This is why students are encouraged to listen to wordless music when revising for exams. These changes would also help improve participant reactivity if they are studied in a familiar environment. It would give them a sense of security and the need to look cool is not needed anymore and there is no extra pressure put on them to learn because they dont have the feeling they are being examined.  So, these changes could actually change the results slightly if only with a few participants. It might be found that there is higher recall in both conditions though but the difference may still stay the same. Reliability  The study is very easy to replicate as there is many references to other studies similar to it. Also because the study is quite simple in itself and very cheap to do there are very rarely any problems in recreating it for different purposes.  One possible confounding variable was introduced by the fact that there were four researchers in the room at the time of the study and they all knew the hypotheses. They may have tried give the participants help in recalling the words by giving hints and clues so that the results were more conclusive. This may have led to unreliable comparisons between conditions. As the study was a laboratory experiment it meant the researchers had good control over the study. The words that were chosen were all unambiguous so the participants would not have interpreted them in different ways. Also the test had been severely standardised. The words were shown on an over head projector so they were all looking at the same thing when learning was taking place. Also the testing was completed in the same room and at the same time of day for each condition so the participants were not feeling more tired in one condition than the other. Improving reliability  The only possible way to improve reliability was to keep researcher contact to a minimum or have a person in the room that was unaware of the hypothesis so they couldnt alter the study in any way. This would be difficult though because once they are in the room it does become quite obvious what the study is about.  This could be controlled for by using an outside civilian to be the one person giving the participants instructions on what they have to do. There could be one person chosen for each condition so that they dont guess what the study is about.  Even if these changes did increase the reliability of the study the only difference they might make to the results is to decrease the differences found between the two conditions.

Classifications of Snakes and Reptiles

Classifications of Snakes and Reptiles Reptiles are some of the oldest living creatures on the planet and made their first appearance some 300 million years ago. It is believed that the first species of snakes contained limbs which became more and more reduced through great periods of time, this phenomenon can be seen as a clear indicator just how evolution took place within a group of organisms. Today vestigial structures occur in certain serpent families such as Pythonidae and Boidae, and are remnants of structures they once possessed. Spurs which occur in the posterior position opposite the cloacae in Boas and Pythons is a clear example of vestigial structures that formed through time. Snakes are carnivorous reptiles that belong to the order Squamata (Lepidosuaria), which is regarded the most important assemblage, as far as snakes are concerned. Squamates is a very diverse group of ectothermic (organisms that rely on their external environment to obtain the energy needed to facilitate metabolic and other processes crucial for life), amniote vertebrates which contain the distinct characteristic of being elongated and covered in overlapping scales. Squamata is subdivided into three distinct suborders: Ophidia or Serpentes, containing snakes, Sauria containing lizards and Amphisbaenia containing worm- lizards. The suborder Ophidia contains 15 families which are subdivided into 456 genera that consist of more than 2900 species. Snakes have one of the widest distributional ranges in the animal kingdom, covering the whole planet except Antarctica (Figure 1.1). In South Africa alone there occurs 166 species and subspecies of snakes, 101 of these species have enlarged fangs to deliver venom of which only 15 are regarded as very dangerous and potentially fatal to man. This means that of all our snake species only 8.5% are classified as dangerous, where administration of antivenin is deemed necessary. The remainder of venomous species is of no medical importance to man, in fact in some species the toxicity of their venom is less than that found in bees and wasps. There are a few morphological characteristics of Ophidia which distinguishes them from the other two suborders e.g. the lack of eyelids, external ears, the lack of limbs and the occurrence of a single row of ventral scales, whereas lizards and amphisbaenas differ in the sense that they have various patterns of scales that do not occur in specific rows. Amphisbaenians scale formation is atypical in the sense that scales are arranged in rows around the body of the animal thus supposedly mimicking the resemblance of an earthworm. The skulls of Serpents are very unique in the sense that their upper jaw bones arent united/interconnected at snout of the animal, this enables the two jaw bones to act separate form one another and enables the snake to swallow large prey items. In contrary to popular belief snakes can however not dislocate or unhinge their jaws to swallow large prey items, the two upper jaws are simply connected to each other through connective tissue which is highly elastic a nd serves as the binding factor between the jaws. Snakes fulfill a crucial role/function in nature and can be seen as an integral aspect of our environment both as key predators and as prey. They assist in regulating rodent numbers and are good indicators of the natural balance of the environment (bio-indicators). In addition to this, research and development is being done on the properties of venom in the medical field. Research is being conducted on the applications of venom in fields such as high blood pressure, mental disorders and diseases of the central nervous system to mention but a few. Such is the complexity of venom that further studies, beneficial to man, are essential. It is there for imperative that we conserve our snakes not only for the preservation of our environment, but also for the wellbeing of mankind. Evolution that took place within the Class Reptilia Reptiles evolved from prehistoric amphibians called Labrynthodonts (Flank, 1997), and according to paleontologists made their first appearance in the Pennsylvanian era some 300 million years ago. They were also the first vertebrates to escape dependency on water. The earliest forms of reptiles suggested a mixture of both amphibian and reptilian characteristics, and diversified greatly over the next 200 million years. Reptiles were the dominant animal group on earth during the Mesozoic period, and were represented by 15 major groups. Only 4 of these orders survive today. Extinct are the fishlike Ichtyosaurus, sail-backed Pelycosaurs, flying Pterosaurs, Mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, well-known dinosaurs like Brachiosaurs and many others. The dinosaurs included the largest animals ever to walk on earth-the Sauropods, some of them reaching lengths of nearly 27 meters long. Many of the less familiar dinosaurs were no longer than chickens. (Carr,1963) Several basic advances made possible the rise and wide distribution of reptiles on land. Most important was the amniote egg, with its tough outer covering and protective membranes, and a cornified skin that protected the animals from drying out. The positioning of the limbs also made it possible for reptiles to move more easily on land, and an improved circulatory system ensured that oxygen rich blood reached the animals. In their Mesozoic heyday, Reptiles dominated the land, seas and air, and the reason for their dramatic decline during this period is still not clear, although there are some speculation by biologists that the decline was probably caused by a meteor shower which altered a dramatic change in climate and giving rise to the so called Ice Age. Warm blooded vertebrates (Birds and Mammals) began to expand by the end of the Mesozoic period. By the time the Cenozoic period arose only 4 orders of reptiles still existed, and these same four have persisted to this day. The order Rhynchocephalia is represented by only one species, the lizzardlike, granular scaled Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) confined to New Zealand where its survival is now threatened. The remaining 3 orders have representatives throughout the world. The order Testudines (turtles) is the most ancient, appearing about 250 million years ago and remaining virtually unchanged for the past 200 million years. The order Crocodylia (cro codilians) is slightly less ancient and is traceable to the Permian thecodonts. The order Squamata refers to scaled reptiles that include lizards, amphisbaenids and snakes. This is the most recent order and was not common until the late Cretaceous times about 65 million years ago. In order to classify snakes or other organisms it is necessary to understand the origin and evolution of the species and place them into specific genera and families (Figure 1.2) Scientists believe that modern day snakes evolved from the family Varanidae, a group of lizards that belong to the genus Veranus. The fossils of Lapparentophis defrennei (Figure 1.3) was found in North Africa as we know it today, and it represents the earliest member of the suborder Ophidia. This species however shows no direct link between earlier snake like reptiles, and its origin continues to boggle biologists. Lapparentophis defrennei appeared on the earth around 100 million years ago during the Cretaceous period and were around for about 35 million years, were after it got extinct by the end of the Cretaceous period. Boidae was one of the seven families of snakes that arose after the Cretaceous period and was at its peak of speciation during this time. Colubridae in modern day times is the family that contains the largest amount of different snake species, and first emerged some 36 million years ago during the late Eocene, and the beginning of the Oligocene period. During this time Colubrids started to diversify at an immense rate and eventually gave rise to more new species during the Miocene period. This diversification led to the disappearance of some of the more primitive lineages of snakes because they could no longer compete with the better adapted species that was starting to evolve. Viperidae (vipers, rattle snakes and adders) and Elapidae (front fixed fang snakes generally cobras and mambas and their relatives) originated during the Miocene period and belongs to the infraorder Alethinophidia. The family Viperidae is by far the most advanced evolved species of snake in the world and contains highly specialized structures that enable them to be a very successful hunters e.g. heat- sensitive pits that developed on the upper labial and a brightly colored tail tip that occur in Agkistrodon sp. This is just one example of how specialized this family of serpents is to survive. Distinguising features of the suborder Ophidia All snakes are elongated, lack eyelids, external ears and osteoderms. Snakes poses a forked tongue which can be retracted into a sheath (Figure 2.1) All have along backbone. (Some have in excess of 400 vertebrae), with many articulated ribs used predominantly for locomotion and maintaining body shape. The lower jaw is not fused, which allows the snake to engulf large items. They do however not dislocate their jaw. Prey is subdued either by constriction or by the injection of venom. In the case of venomous snakes small prey items are bitten and held in the mouth until paralysis or death occurs, whereas large prey items are bitten and released to ensure that damage do not occur to the snake. The majority of species have only the right lung but more primitive species such as Pythonidae and Boidae also contains a rudimentary left lung. Unlike lizards the tail cannot be regenerated. All snakes shed their skin. All snakes hatch from eggs, some are Oviparous (eggs hatch outside the females body), and some are ovoviviparous (eggs hatch inside the mothers body thus giving birth to live young). Classification of snakes Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Reptilia Order: Squamata Suborder: Ophidia (Serpentes) Infraorders: -Alethinophidia -Scolecophidia The classification of snakes are based on different morphological structures The general morphology of snakes is a crucial factor used in their Taxonomy. Factors such as the arrangement of bones in the skull and other parts of the skeleton, especially the presence or absence of a pelvic girdle are used to distinguish between separate and subspecies of snakes. The hypapohyses (vertebrae with downward pointing spike like projections), the coronoid bone (a small bone that occur in the lower jaw), structures of the hemipenes (Figure 2.2, Jadin, 2000) and microscopic and biochemical material such as chromosome arrangement and protein analyses are also used in classification of snakes. The presence or absence hypapohyses, especially in the lumbar region of the spine, is used as one of many diagnostic characters when classifying snakes. The hypapohyses is very prominent in the genus Dasypeltis which use them too saw trough egg shells. There occurs much variation in the shape and size of the coronoid bone. It is particularly large in primitive snakes such as Typhlopidae, Leptotyphlopidae and Anomalepididae. The coronoid bone is very small or absent altogether in advanced snake species. A hemipenis is the sex organ of male Squamates. Male snakes has two hemipenes probably for the reason that when one is damaged or injured, it still left with a spare one which can remain to work and carry out its normal function during copulation. This ensures that the males genes dont get lost and can still be carried over through copulation with females. Hemipenes, under normal conditions are used in an alternating fashion when copulation occurs with female individuals. Sperm is carr ied through the sulcus spermaticus (which is the line running through the middle of a males hmipenis) to the female during copulation. By examining the tail of an individual we are able to distinguish its sex. Males usually have a long tail which contains prominent bulges of where the hemipenes are situated and females usually have very short tails without the occurrence of any prominent bulges. The shapes of hemipenes differ greatly from species to species and contain different cranial structures thus forming a very important method for taxonomists to classify snakes into different species and subspecies. Relationships that occur between different species of Squamates as a result of evolution is best explained through the examination hemipenal characteristics of the different species. The function of the spines and ridges that occurs on hemipenes of different species of male snakes, serves as an adaption to ensure that copulation lasts long enough for egg fertilization to occur. Biology Hearing and Vision Snakes cannot hear airborne sounds due to the fact that they do not posses external ears. Snakes do however have an auditory nerve enabling them to hear sounds travelling through a dense medium. They are extremely sensitive to vibrations and can thus detect someone or something approaching them. For this reason people seldom see snakes whilst walking in the bush, the snake senses the vibrations created by footsteps and beats a hasty retreat for cover. There is however snakes that do not retreat when approached and this is a direct result of the morphological attributes they contain. Bitis arietans, Bitis atropos and, Bitis gabonica, are species of snakes that rather rely on their camouflage to conceal them from potential predators and dangers than to move away, and it is not surprising to find out that Bitis arietans is responsible for 60% of all snake bites in Southern Africa. Contrary to popular believe snakes do have good vision. How else would they safely navigate through the bus h except of course via smell? Their vision however is used mainly for detecting movement. Most snakes have monocular vision (unable to distinguish depth of field) whilst some snakes have binocular vision (able to distinguish depth of field) e.g. Thelotornis capensis and Dispholidus typus. Snakes do not have movable eyelids, instead they possess a fixed transparent shield which covers the eye and is shed during sloughing. Sense of smell For this function the snake uses its tongue. The tongue is flickered; picking up minute airborne particles which when retracted back into the mouth is deposited onto organs situated in the roof of the mouth. These organs are known as the organs of Jacobson. Studies have shown that snakes enjoys a similar sense of smell as we do, the epithelium of the organs of Jacobson works in exactly the same way as the olfactory epithelium we as humans possess. The tongue is forked so that the snake can detect the differences in strength of smell and thus enabling it to locate its prey very accurately. Snakes diet consists of quite a few prey items such as: rats, mice, small mammals, birds, frogs, toads, insects, lizards, fish, small antelope, eggs and other snakes, which is swallowed whole usually head first. Shedding Shedding of skin depends primarily on the growth rate. Juveniles for example shed their skin more often than adults for the simple reason that they are growing faster. Juveniles may shed their skin as often as twelve times a year whereas an adult may only shed its skin three to four times a year. During this process the entire skin is shed from the tip of the snout through to the tail including the eye shields. During this time the snakes eyes become opaque, restricting the snakes vision and therefore making the snake not only more vulnerable, but also more aggressive. A snake may often go into hiding during this period. You may also find snakes basking for longer periods prior to shedding, the reason being higher temperature speeds up the development of new skin, thus reducing the vulnerability period. Cold Blooded (Ectothermic) and Hibernation All members of the order Squamata are so called cold blooded (exothermic) organisms. This simply means that unlike mammals and birds which generate heat internally (endothermic), reptiles obtain their heat externally, usually from the sun. All reptiles will bask in the sun absorbing heat from their environment until their bodies reach the correct optimal temperature (ÂÂ ± 30Â °C) which allows them to function at their maximum potential. The advantage of ectothermy is that it is fuel efficient. Mammals on the other hand convert 90% of what they eat into heat in order to maintain biochemical and muscle efficiency which allows mammals the opportunity to function at colder temperatures. This method demands a constant intake of food. Reptiles however become temporarily dormant at colder temperatures and thus waste no energy. A snake can survive and grow on ten to fifteen meals a year. Reptiles will go into hibernation when their optimal body temperature cannot be achieved from the e nvironment. In areas where there is a significant fluctuation in temperature snakes will go into hibernation. The correct term used is topor. Areas such as the lowveld where there is no significant temperature variations will see reptiles not going into true hibernation but rather into a state of burmation. During hibernation snakes live off the body fat accumulated during the warm periods of the summer, and will exhibit very little signs of activity, thus becoming sluggish. A snake will use anything that will offer it protection against the elements and predation. Sites which are used by Squamates during the winter or cold times of the year for hibernation include deserted termite mounds, hollow logs and rock crevices. Reproduction Sexually active males will approach any snake they come across. The reaction of the approached snake will determine how the encounter develops. If the approached snake is a male and reacts aggressively it may give rise to a battle between the two parties. Battles vary according to species, Vipers and Elapids generally engage in a form of ritualistic wrestling, but refrain themselves from biting each other. Colubrids however react violently and bite each other severely. In some species of snakes several males group together amicably and follow a receptive female. Should there be no reaction from the approached snake the sexually active male uses its Vermonasal organ to chemically determine the species and sex of the snake it has approached. It does so with the use of its tongue interpreting the pheromones emitting from the other snake. Should it be of a different species, the male then seeks out a new mate. All reptiles have internal fertilization. The male places his head on the back of the female and winds his tail around the females and attempts to join their cloacas together. This is seldom achieved at the first attempt. It sometimes takes hours, even days, for successful copulation to take place. The sexual organs of the male consist of two penises, referred to as the hemipenes. Each hemipene is equipped with flexible spines which inflate once penetration has occurred making it difficult for the male and female snakes to become dislodged. Sperm is transferred to the female via a single penis in Crocodilians and Chelonians, and paired penises in lizards and snakes (although only one penis is used at a time). Once mating has taken place the male will often stay with the female for a few days to mate again. Fertilization of the ovule and spermatozoid takes place high in the oviduct, then the egg gradually moves down into the oviduct where the uterine glands secrete a substance which surrounds the egg. The length of the embryonic development depends on the species and also within the species depending on climate (temperature), and ranges from 2-5 months. As stated before all snakes hatch from eggs. The method of incubation however does differ between some species. The majority of snakes lay eggs andleave them to be incubated externally (oviviparous) with no parental care whatsoever. Species such as Python natalensis coils around their eggs throughout incubation. This not only protects the eggs but also regulates the temperature to help assist with incubation. In other species such as Hemachatus haemachatus the female retains the eggs inside her body to produce fully developed live young (viviparous). Between four to eight weeks after mating the female selects a suitable site to deposit her eggs. The site chosen is usually a suitably protected place in the form of rotting vegetation, hollow tree trunks or any other suitable location. The number of eggs deposited depends on a variety of circumstances for example, species, size of the female, habitat (availability of food), age and climate. Eggs laid vary between one and two to as many as 60, sometimes more, depending on factors mentioned above. Eggs usually have soft leathery shells which require a specific amount of heat and humidity in order to ensure that hatch. Once the eggs have been laid there is often no parental care with the exception of a few species. In South Africa the young of Python natalensis may stay with the female for several days after hatching, leaving the burrow by day and returning to the female at night. In most reptiles the sex of hatchlings is determined by temperature, for example outer eggs (cooler) will be female while the inner eggs (warmer) within the nest will be male. The eggs usually hatch between one to three months after the female has deposited them. In the case of some species of chameleons eggs might take up to a year to hatch. The young are equipped with an egg tooth consisting of a sharp ridge on the tip of the snout which allows the young to slit open the eggshell thus freeing itself. The young that emerges are exact replicas of the adults, and the hatchlings of venomous snakes are equipped with fully functional venom glands and fangs, and are thus venomous directly from birth. Egg mortality is quite high. Reasons for egg mortality range from predation to unsuitable nest sites chosen. Giving birth to live young may be an evolutionary process to assure the success of a species, reducing the risk of egg mortality in particularly cold areas where the temperatures wont be adequate enough for incubation. Movement (Locomotion Speed) The ability to function at speed and endurance is directly related to the supply and amount of oxygenated blood to the body. Reptiles, unlike mammals and birds, do not receive as good supply of oxygenated blood. Directly translated, this means that reptiles tire more easily and are incapable of endurance. Based on these facts it is doubtful that the speed of a snake would exceed 20km/h which is much slower than the average human. The two fastest snake species world occur in Southern Africa and belongs to the genus Psammophis and Dendroaspis. There are four basic modes of locomotion in snakes: Sepentine This is the more familiar method of locomotion that most snakes use e.g. the family Elapidae which makes use of this method. The body undulates from side to side while the hind part of the snake makes contact with the surface and the rest of the body is pushed in the direction the snake wishes to go. Caterpillar These are usually heavy bodied snakes e.g. Bitis arietans. The snake progresses in a primarily straight line using its ventral scales to propel it forward. Concertina This is when a part of the body is anchored whilst pushing forward. The snake may anchor its head and then drags the rest of the body towards the head. This is often seen in arboreal species when negotiating between smooth braches of trees. Snakes that make use of this type of locomotion usually contain the characteristic of keeled ventral scales, and include species of the genus Philothamnus. Sidewinding This method is most seen in desert species. It is the most effective method of locomotion on loose unstable surfaces such as sand. Only one or two sections of the body are in contact with the surface at any given time. A section of the body is thrown sideways and is followed by the next section. This way of locomotion can be seen as a specific adaption for desert species e.g. Bitis peringueyi, to ensure that they dont get burned by the hot desert sand when moving. Scales Most people refer to snakes as being wet or slimy, which is quite the contrary. In fact if you touch a snake you will notice that it is in fact dry. Scales are horny skin that originates from the snakes epidermis. The primary function of scales is to prevent rapid water loss, an evolutionary process which has allowed snakes to move onto land. Scales can be smooth or keeled. Some snakes use their scales as a warning mechanism. By rubbing them together this creates a rasping sound that serves as a warning to would be predators. Dasypeltis scabra is a species of snake that occur in Southern Africa and which use this specific defensive mechanism to ward of predators. The North American rattlesnakes rattle is also an example of modified scales that formed through evolution. Scales also help in the locomotion of snakes. Scale counts remain one of the main methods in the identification and classification between different species of snakes. There are four methods which can be used to correctly identify a species via scale counts: Head scales This is done by counting the upper and lower labials on each side, taking note of which scales are in contact with the eye. Examine the nasal scales (single, semi-divided or fully divided). Count the number of preocular and postocular scales and check whether a loreal shield is present. There should also be taken note of the arrangements of scales that occur on the temples, and the presence of any fused scales. Observe the relative sizes of internasals, prefrontals, frontal and parietals, and also note the proportions and shape of the rostral scales at the front of the nose. Dorsal scales Note whether the scales are smooth or keeled. And one head length away from head and in front of the cloaca Subcaudal scales The first scale is the single or paired scale that meets the lateral scales on both sides. Count back along the tail towards the conical tip. Note whether scales or anal shields are single or divided as this forms a crucial part of the identification between different families of snakes. Internal Anatomy of Snakes A snakes skull is specifically designed to suit their specialized feeding habits. Because a snake cannot chew its food and must swallow it whole it is important that the snake be able to open its mouth very wide. For this reason the fifty odd bones in the skull are not fused together, instead they are loosely connected to each other by ligaments which allows the snake to produce an enlarged gape allowing it to swallow prey much larger than its head. The concept is similar to an elastic band. Often after a snake has eaten it will seem to yawn, this is done simply to relax the ligaments and bones t their original shape. The structure of a snakes brain is very similar to that of a bird, but unlike birds and mammals snakes lack the enlarged cerebral hemispheres. In mammals (and birds) the cerebral is the part of the brain, which acts as the learning center of the organism. For this reason, although snakes are perfectly adapted to the environment, it is correct to say that snakes are not very intelligent. To allow snakes to engulf such large prey whole the stomach has to be very strong and elastic allowing it to expand greatly once prey is engulfed. Powerful digestive juices allow the snake to digest bone and teeth. Because a snake is for the most part long and cylindrical, the shape of the lung must be somewhat different in order to fit inside the snakes body. The right lung is usually the largest and extends for 1/3 of snakes body length. The left lung, in most cases is absent, or very small. Snakes have in effect only one lung. During feeding the snake is able to extend a muscular extension of its windpipe (epiglottis) from the bottom of its mouth allowing it to breathe while prey is being consumed. Most reptiles have a primitive three chambered heart which is not as effective as the four chambered heart found in crocodiles (and mammals). In snakes oxygen depleted blood gets pumped into one of the top chambers while oxygenated blood gets pumped into the other top chamber, both chambers get emptied into the bottom chamber and then circulated through the body. This is the main reason why snakes tire easily. In proportion to their body size snakes have very large kidneys. The left kidney is situated behind the right kidney in the abdominal region. The function of the kidney is to filter the waste products from the bloodstream and pass them on to the cloaca for excretion. Unlike mammals which excrete nitrogen waste in the form of water soluble urea, snakes excrete these body wastes as crystals which forms a dry white paste which is excreted along with the feaces. This allows reptiles to be extremely efficient in their use of water. Mammals have a separate urinary, reproductive and a nal opening. Snakes however do not. Instead they have a common chamber known as the cloaca which performs all these rudimentary functions. Waste material is stored in the cloaca until eliminated. The claoca opens to the outside through a transverse slit at the base of the tail. It is often possible to tell the difference in sexes between species by looking at the length from the cloaca to the tip of the tail. The longer the distance between these points would signify the snake as being male whereas a short distance between these points would indicate the snake as being female. The reason behind this is that during reproduction, as mentioned earlier, the male wraps his tail around the females. Some snakes, like the Pythonidae family, have special glands which also empty into the cloaca, these glands contain a foul musky scent which can be ejected when a snake is threatened, frightened or stressed. Venom There is no easy describing venom. Simply put, snake venom is highly modified saliva which is produced by modified saliva glands. Venom is a combination of different enzymes, or proteins, that act on other chemicals and proteins thus altering them or simply breaking them down. Many of these proteins are harmless, but some are toxins. The makeup of these toxins varies widely from species to species. Snakes venom can therefore be best described as a cocktail of hundreds of different proteins and enzymes, this complexity alone accounts for widely differing effects of snakebite. In essence venom affects the protein and chemicals of the immune system and the blood, transported through the body via the lymphatic system. The venom glands are situated in the skull slightly behind the eyes. In order for venom to be effective it has to be injected into the circulatory system. It is therefore quite safe for a normal healthy person to drink venom without any consequences. Venom cannot be compared to poison, and are totally different entities. Venom has to be injected (circulatory system) Poison has to be ingested (swallowed) The functions of venom are numerous: Prevents the putrification of prey prior to ingestion. Immobilizes prey thus preventing the snake from being injured. Digestive properties within the venom begin the digestive process prior to ingestion. Snake venom is also antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antiprotozoal which protects the snake from microbial diseases which it may contract from prey. As a last resort, self defense when the snake is threatened. There are three types of snake venom: Neurotoxic nerve acting venom (Elapidae). Cytotoxic cel destroying venom (Viperidae.) Haemotoxic blood acting venom (Colubridae). Fangs (Dentition) All snakes have teeth, but not all snakes have fangs. Most snakes have teeth on the upper and lower

Critical Analysis of Oleanna :: essays papers

Critical Analysis of Oleanna The most straight forward gender conflict in the movie Oleanna is that between the Professor and the student. She accuses him of sexual harassment. He denies it and they go before the Tenure Committee who find him guilty. The question at hand is what is sexual harassment? Must the harasser intend to harass? When a student would ask Socrates to answer a question, Socrates would ask them to define their terms. He would continue to ask the student to clarify until finally the student would realize the answer to the question. In this case the question that may have been put to Socrates is "Can a person, man or woman, commit sexual harassment on accident?". The answer from this ugly old man would be "What is sexual harassment?" It is physical advancement, sexist or sexual remarks, even pornographic material, that someone finds offensive and threatening. The Professor in Oleanna sexually harasses the student by this definition. This first part of sexual harassment, that someone must find the activity personally offensive, is met without a doubt. Why? Oleanna says she is offended by his remarks. Only she can know for sure how she feels. The second part of sexual harassment, that the person must be threatened, is harder to prove than for her to just say she was threatened. Oleanna says in her claim that the professor referred to female students as "darlin’" and other such terms of endearment. Why would she feel more threatened than the other women in her class? In defense of the professor it must be understood that he only intended to help Oleanna. He slipped across the line of what is proper behavior. He went from being a teacher to wanting to be a father figure. It is sad but at some point a person must draw a line and realize what they can and cannot accomplish. Another question that pertains to the guilt or innocence of the Professor is a concern for the Bill of Rights.

Investing Online Essay -- GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

Investing Online Personal Investing with Computer Technology Introduction Computer technology has revolutionized the way people can invest their money. Online trading has become the newest fad for people trying to get more bang for their buck. Virtually anyone with access to the Internet can set up an online brokerage account. With just a click of the mouse people can buy and sell stocks. This advanced computer technology for personal investing has its pros and cons. It has made it much easier for the average person to take care of his/her finances in an inexpensive manner. It has alos made it easier for people to become addicted to trading, which can become an expensive habit. Trading Stocks Inexpensively Online trading is easy and inexpensive. In comparison with traditional brokers, Internet brokers charge flat rates for transactions. The traditional full service broker usually charges the investor fees depending on how much stock they buy or sell, not to mention the commission they charge for handling the investors portfolio. Small-time investors with the know how of managing their own finaces have found online trading to be very beneficial. They now have found ways to buy individual stocks at a cheap price without paying all the fees asociated with the full service broker. These investors can go into numerous web sites to get information on any particular stock they are interested in. Many of these web sites are designed for the invstor ju...

Consumers’ Perception of Quality Essay

This study primarily investigates the underlying factors that help to form consumer perception of quality toward private universities in Bangladesh. Five beliefs have been identified as salient to perceive the quality of private universities of Bangladesh. These are quality faculty members, university environment, campus facility, quality education and university image/reputation. Multi-item measures were used for data collection. Results revealed that three factors: campus facility, quality education and university image/reputation have positive and significant influence on perceived quality of private university in Bangladesh. Quality faculty members and university environment do not have significant influence on perceived quality of private university in Bangladesh. INTRODUCTION: Higher education in the university level has been imparted through two major types of institutions, namely: public university and private university. The concept of private university in Bangladesh is not a very ancient one. The emergence of private university in Bangladesh began with the enactment of a series of laws governing higher education in 1992. To fulfill the ever-growing demand of institutions of higher studies, at present there are 85 universities in Bangladesh where only 29 of those are public universities and remaining 56 are private (University Grants Commission Website). Establishment of private universities released the pressure of large-scale admission seekers for the limited number of seats available in public universities. The Private University Act 1992 mentions that the main objectives of private universities are to meet the growing demand of higher education and to create skilled manpower for the economic development of the country. The present study analyzes the perceived quality of private universities in Bangladesh focusing on some salient beliefs like quality faculty members, university environment, campus facility, quality education, image/reputation. Private universities in Bangladesh, no doubt, have contributed to responding to the social demand for higher education by absorbing a good number of students who otherwise could not have received university degree. The private universities are attracting a large number of students, while it seems that the reputation and teaching-learning process of the public universities are secularly on the decline, despite the fact that their worldwide reputation is higher than some of the private universities. The state has to form some sort of â€Å"accreditation council† and those private universities that satisfy certain critical minimum requirements of inputs, processes, and outputs will be given accreditation by the proposed council. RELATED CONSTRUCTS OF THIS STUDY: Faculty Members: Faculty members are one of the most important and crucial factors for any private universities. In order to evaluate perceived quality the key factor to be considered is the quality of the faculties as it has a significant influence on the perceived quality of private universities. Also to provide quality education the faculty members are also chosen from a pool of excellent academic background with national and foreign degrees. For ensuring the sound academic environment, now private universities are emphasizing research work of the faculty members. University Environment: The university environment is another factor for choosing university and perceiving the quality of a particular university. Therefore it is important that the university must have a congenial environment that will ensure friendly student-teacher relationship, politics free and no session jam or delay in achieving graduation, well organized authority, zero discrimination and good and healthy premis es. Campus Facility: The campus facility of any private university must have the basic facilities as well as some value added facilities as the students of private universities are paying some premium price in getting the education here. Quality Education: The students who get enrolled in private universities must have a minimum educational background to qualify for the admission test and finally enrolled in the university. The curriculum is designed to meet the international standard as well as the students should be able to take part in any competitive examination with full confidence as compared to those of public universities. The student-teacher ratio and the grading policy also have an impact on the quality education. Image / Reputation: The image or reputation of the university has an impact in the job market. The private universities like North South University, East West University, BRAC University, Independent University, Bangladesh (IUB), American International University, Bangladesh (AIUB) have been able to create an acceptance to the students and guardian community by their image and reputation. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: The objective of this study therefore is to identify, analyze, and explore how the students perceive quality of the private universities and what are the extrinsic factors (faculty strength, university environment, campus facility, brand image, and quality of education) influencing perception of quality to the students and guardians. Each of these extrinsic cues has positive or negative impact on the students’ evaluation of private universities in Bangladesh. Having identified all the cues we need to find out which cue/s has/have more influence on the students while evaluating the perceived quality of a particular private university. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE: Given the importance of the topic, it is not surprising that a great deal has been written about quality. Consistency limitation preclude a comprehensive review (Castleberry 1985), only the literature that is relevant to the objectives of this exploratory study will be discussed here. Unlike the approach taken in this paper, many authors have offered definitions of quality. For example, Crosby (1979) defined it as â€Å"conformance to requirements,† while Kotler (2006) defined it as â€Å"the rated ability of the brand to perform its functions.† Others have highlighted aesthetic considerations. Thus, Bohr (1980) notes that quality â€Å"†¦also means aesthetic and sensuous pleasure as well†¦it is timeless style, simple elegance and a sensation that makes people feel comfortable and satisfied to be near it.† Garvin (1984), however, concedes that the definition of quality â€Å"remains a source of confusion.† He states that quality often is equated with conformance to tight manufacturing standards but that there are many other dimensions of quality as well, to wit: performance, durability, reliability, serviceability, the â€Å"bells and whistles,† and aesthetic elements. In a similar view, Gronroos (1984) acknowledges the need to define quality of services in terms of consumer perceptions and suggests that service quality may be a function of a number of variables, i.e., consumer expectations, technical and functional characteristics, and image. After classifying definitions of quality that have appeared in marketing and other disciplines, Holbrook and Corfman (1985) developed a definition of quality within the framework of value theory, specifically: quality is the â€Å"extrinsic, self-oriented, passive value.† An empirical test of their conceptual definition was only marginally successful and the authors concluded that they had provided only a partial answer to the quest ion of the meaning of quality. Years ago Wittgenstein (1953) stated that to understand quality from the consumer’s standpoint, one must be concerned with the everyday use of the word. However, as evidenced by examples from the literature, researchers generally have not adopted this approach. Moreover, no study was found which explored the extent to which consumers’ definitions of quality depend upon the product or service being considered. Another line of inquiry in the current study is whether consumers evaluate quality before and/or after purchasing a product or service ant, if so, how. Economists, who probably have contributed most to this topic, are divided into two groups. Wilde (1981) represents those who feel quality is a search attribute (i.e., quality perceptions are formed before purchase). Others (e.g., Hey and McKenna 1981), however, feel that perceptions of quality are formed only after purchase and hence quality is an experience attribute. Of the many issues relating to quality, consumer researchers seem to be most interested in how consumers evaluate quality. Most work has explored the effects of various cues and cue combinations on perceptions and evaluation of quality (Olson 1972, Olson 1977, and Monroe and Krishnan 1985). Recently, Gronroos (1984) and Parasuramen, et al. (1984) have developed conceptual motels of service quality and have identified possible determinants of perceived service quality. The fact that these are service quality motels suggests that the evaluation, as well as the definition, of quality is likely to be context-bound. Gronroos, however, has only tested his model with a sample of service business executives, and the Parasuramen, et al. motel is now being tested empirically. Therefore, considerable work must be done before a better understanding of the meaning and role of quality from the consumer’s perspective is achieved. ATTITUDE TOWARDS PRIVATE UNIVERSITY: As a purpose of the study, we examine the information integration process by which consumers form Attitudes toward Private University (APU). As per cognitive process of consumer decision- making, consumers combine some of their knowledge, meanings, and beliefs for choosing private university to form an overall evaluation. These considered beliefs might be formed by interpretation processes or activated from memory. All Beliefs about Private University: The pretest is conducted to identify the salient beliefs towards private university. Convenience sample of 26 students from North South University and East West University have been provided a survey question asking the attributes they consider to perceive the quality of private university.